Gender digital divide in Maya-speaking contexts of southern Mexico

The digital divide phenomenon arose in the early 90s due to internet popularization and telecommunications and information use management development. Numerous studies and authors agree that the basic premise of the digital divide is the difference that exists between individuals and societies that have access to computing, telecommunications and internet technology resources and those that do not (Schielfe 2008, Van Dijk & Hacker 2003, Servon 2002, OECD 2001, Ginsburg, Sabatini & Wagner 2000). The importance of information as a necessary element for society to function properly is where this phenomenon has its main emphasis, since those who do not have access to information, or have marginal contact with it, are excluded from a successful incorporation to social development. 
This work analyses results of a study focused on gender differences in the use of technologies during a training program called: Reduction of the Digital Divide in Vulnerable and Young People of Vulnerable Communities (REBREDIG-PJA) of a southern Mayan-speaking area of Yucatan. This study´s results are discussed concurring to Mexico´s National Development Plan (2013-2018) and National Digital Strategy (2013) guidelines and compared with parameters stated in Yucatan State Development Plan (2012-2018).


Introduction
In the dawn of the 1990's, the digital divide phenomenon arose because of Internet´s popularization and telecommunications development on information use and administration (ICT). Several researchers (Lichy, 2011, Eynon, 2009, Schielfe, 2008, Livingstone & Helsper, 2007, Van Dijk & Hacker 2003, Cooper & Weaver, 2003, Servon, 2002, OECD, 2001, Ginsburg, Sabatini & Wagner, 2000 agree that digital divide´s basic premise is the gap that computing, telecommunication and internet build between individuals and societies that have access to these resources and those who do not. Since information, the highlight of this phenomenon is an important and essential element to create connections helping society to work properly and fairly, therefore, those who do not have access to information, or have it in a marginal way, are excluded from a successful incorporation to social development. Gender and ICT Indicators System (SIGTIC), allows: a) to make inter-gender comparisons, determined by the degree of e-equality; b) perform intra-gender analysis, depending on the degree of e-inclusion of each sex; and c) contextualize the results obtained with those corresponding to 31 European countries. The outcomes show the presence of a gender digital divide, determined not only by e-access, but also by the level of e-inclusion, showing a clear feminine disadvantage in the intensity of ICT use, additionally presents evidence of the use certain segments of internet according to gender: recreational and economic (masculine); of social welfare (feminine).
In the article The digital divide between Male and Female users in Internet Public Access Sites, Dixon, Correa, Straubhaar, Covarrubias, Graber and Spencer (2014), examine the evidence of the gender digital divide in public internet access points (community technology centres, libraries and others) in Austin, Texas. Using extensive observations of the participants, authors found that male users are the most numerous group in public access to internet use, even considering age and ethnicity. Similarly, in-depth interviews revealed that both sexes saw public access places, different form libraries, as the least desirable to use internet. In the case of libraries, the study revealed women associated them with books and family nostalgia, while men related them. Finally, elder users described technophobia feelings.
In this logic, USA´s National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT, 2010) stated that 56% of the 2009 Advanced Placement exam applicants were women, but females only represented 18% of the people who took the exam in the Computer Science area (CS AP). In fact, since 1999, the Advanced Placement Program in Computer Science has systematically been the program with fewer women (NCWIT, 2010). NCWIT data is consistent with information found in countries such as Canada (Dionne-Simard, Galarneau & Larochelle-Coté, 2016); Germany (Schinzel, 2017); United Kingdom (WISE, 2015); China (Powell & Chang, 2016) and Romania (Ward, Dragne & Lucas, 2014), all documenting in recent years a significant decrease in women´s enrollment in study fields related to technology and engineering.
United Kingdom´s British Council (2016) carried out a study entitled: Gender equality and empowerment of women and girls in the UK, where this parliamentary committee mentions that, despite the great global impact of digital technology and «Big data» in public and consumer services, benefits are not shared equally, and technology is playing an important role in the emergence of new inequalities (gaps). As a developed country, the UK has almost achieved universal primary and secondary education. Girls enjoy greater educational achievements, but there are still some areas where results are not fair. There is a clear gender segregation in areas selected by young woman in secondary and postsecondary education, mainly in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) related ones. Due to low participation in STEM in the UK, women represent only 15% of ICT professionals (European average is 18%) and less than 30% of the entire ICT workforce. These proportions are stagnant when analyzed and compared with the comportment of other developed countries. Similarly, the study shows that worldwide, the number of female technology directors has remained immobile for the last ten years.
In Albury, Australia, Atkinson, Black & Curtis (2008) studied the digital divide in this region focusing on its existence, identifying strategies to address it, and developing a methodology to explore it in any context. Results showed the existence of digital divide, is linked to computer access differences in access and related to income level, city area of residency, age range and education. In general, the model indicates that individuals with lower levels of education and income and higher age range report a greater incidence of the digital divide.
However, the authors, based on their research, mention ways to deal with the digital divide that could be applied to contexts where this phenomenon exists: training and technical support provision to the affected, improvement of access, approach to ICT services knowledge, as well as the procurement of appropriate hardware and software for disadvantaged groups.
The research: Digital Technologies and Gender Justice in India, Gurumurthy & Chami (2014) mentions that the 2013 International Telecommunication Union measurement on information society places India in the «least Connected Countries» category, based on the composite media of ICT access, technology use skills and ICT use. Cited study defines less connected countries as those in which "... access and use of information and communication technologies are limited to basic voice and low-speed data services". This study also mentions, that in the Indian context, there is gender gap in ICT access, data concurs with information other studies and authors, who have found that 11.6% of male Indians are connected online while only 8.4% of Indian women are (Anderson, 2015;World Economic Forum, 2013;Vigneswara, 2013), therefore, Intel (2013) (2016) study, with teachers from 19 high schools, 85% belonging to an urban environment (Merida) and 15% to rural settings located in towns such as Umán, Caucel and Acanceh. Main results showed teachers belonging to urban educational centers had better skills for ICT use, compared with those in rural environments. It was also observed that there is a digital divide between participants sex, since men registered better ICT use competencies in comparison with women.
Outcomes form previously reviewed intentional studies (Gurumurthy & Chami, 2014;Castaño, Martín & Martínez, 2011;Atkinson, Black &Curtis, 2008 andCooper, 2006) and those carried out in Maya-speaking contexts of south-eastern Mexico (Domínguez, Canto, Ortega & McCalman, 2016), coincide this era is characterized by precipitous changes in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) which affect the way society learns, works and relates, despite the fact that in developing countries a growing gap is emerging, a new form of division or exclusion, in which women seem to have disadvantages facing the benefits of technological evolution and information society, marginalizing them from employment, income and education opportunities of improvement in this digital age.

Method
Research´s methodological development was mixed-type in an applied setting. Design was carried out under an action research focus, a scientific research method widely nowadays in several countries as Great Britain, Germany, USA, Spain, Canada, Australia, among others (Boggino &Rosekrans, 2007 andElliot, 2005). This work was part of a larger study aiming to reduce the digital divide between young people and adults (YP&A) of vulnerable communities in southern Yucatan by strengthening their digital ICT use skills.
At the research-action stage a training programme called REBREDIG-PJA was implemented, lasting five months and integrated by thirteen units of competence. These units were gradually constructed and presented in complexity order from computer basic knowledge (how to connect, turn on / off, keys knowledge) to possible ICT consequences on health (postures, addictions, etcetera). It was meaningful the assistance received from three community advisers belonging to Yucatan´s Adults Education Institute (IEAEY) and three experts from UADY´s ICT area during the construction of the programme.  Simultaneously, participants were queried to assess if the competence would be important to get a job (CICT) and if they would be interested in learning this competence (EIA), as shown in Table 2.
Thirteen competences composed the instrument and gave a diagnosis on those YP&A had to strengthen. Table 3 presents domains that integrated the instrument, for better understanding purposes, emphasizing that each assessment was integrated by three sections (CCC, CICT, EIA) as mentioned previously.  Source: elaborated by the author with program data REBREDIG-PJA (2017) Using a dichotomist scale (yes / no), participants were directed to answer, how important the competence is to get a job; and finally, if they would be interested in learning it. Technical indicators for these sections are presented in Table 4.   (2017) Results show that, at the training program beginning, men obtained higher scores than women in 11 of the 13 competences. In the Communications competence women got higher scores (x = 2.26) than men (x = 2.24). This competence relates to: sending and receiving SMS messages on the cell phone; exchanging information by email; chat through tools like Whatsapp and participate in social networks like Facebook, Instagram, amongst others.

Results
Women also obtained higher scores on internet use risks (x = 1.70) than men (x = 1.66).

Pre-test competence level by age
Aiming to contrast the 13 digital competences at pre-test stage, Figure 1 presents results by project´s YP&A participants groped by age.
Vol. 11, Núm. 21 Julio -Diciembre 2020, e104  Source: elaborated by the author with the data from REBREDIG-PJA outcomes (2017) To begin with, married people and those living on consensual union have lower levels of digital competence when compared to singles. This situation could reflect they spend less time on ICT´s due to the responsibilities they face on daily basis in parallel with bachelors.
In the same manner of age, Copyright knowledge is the competence with the lowest scores in all groups, indicating a generalizable deficiency for the entire population.  Source: elaborated by the author with the data from REBREDIG-PJA outcomes (2017) In common with variables previously examined: sex, age and marital status, Copyright knowledge also obtained the lowest score, being the only domain where high school graduates average scores "grazed" the minimum competence line.

Elements inhibiting digital divide reduction in Mayan-speaking communities
As part of the methodology used in this work, training program participants were divided in two focus groups. Qualitative data analysis and interpretation was formulated using ATLAS.ti (version 8), a tool setting employed for qualitative analysis of large bodies of textual and graphic data from created hermeneutic units (HU). Data analysis process involved four stages: data preparation (collection and storage), initial analysis (open coding), main analysis (indexed system refinement) and results (key concepts, relationships and models).
During open coding procedure, in the initial analysis stage, categories and subcategories came into sight, as presented in Figure 4 conceptual network. Literature suggests that digital technology has the potential to create connections, encourage learning, raise inclusion levels and even provide lifesaving information. Nevertheless, evidence worldwide reports differences amid countries, translated to indicators such as: educational level, economic stability, parents schooling, growth and development; factors that collaterally increase cost, coverage, access and digital literacy level barriers of the most vulnerable groups impeding the development of technology use advanced skills.
An important consideration of this study is that, notwithstanding men from a Maya-speaking community in Yucatan exhibited better technology use competence levels in variables such as maximum degree of studies, marital status and age. It seems that women, could reach better outcomes by narrowing this gap if they are promoted more, starting from within their families, allowing them to access higher education and employment levels, breaking cultural barriers, as machismo and domination, improving their living conditions. In their own words: "We make an effort to be here, in addition to complying with the activities of the program, we have to fulfill with the tasks of our home, which implies being aware of our spouses, taking care of our children, and take care of our family." Vol. 11, Núm. 21 Julio -Diciembre 2020, e104

Conclusion
Gender digital divide phenomenon in Yucatan´s vulnerable Maya-speaking communities has been little studied in Mexico and documented evidence from scientific studies is incipient.
However, factors causing it, as well as its consequences, are tasks that require immediate attention for southeastern Mexico inhabitant's well-being. Access to computer equipment and technology and internet use enablement are some of the differences that affect women, broadening the inequality gap with men, sidestepping from knowledge society, as well as life and work increase and improvement conditions. This article analyzed differences in technology use between men and women of the Mayaspeaking community of Mayapan, Yucatan through a diagnosis administered to 119 people prior to participating in a training program called: REBREDIG -PJA. Based on results examination, it can be concluded that Mayapan presents a gender digital divide, since men report better skills to use and access technology in comparison with women. A deeper analysis suggests that, even with the same level of education, men have better skills for the technology use than women do. If participants are grouped by marital status, single men demonstrated better skills for technology use compared to women in the same condition.
Finally, age impact on digital competences development is relevant, concluding that at a younger age, the existing technologies use competence level is higher, considering younger partakers age ranges from 13 to 15 years old. This paper seeks to initiate a dialogue about the importance of implementing actions to allow digital inclusion, regardless of gender, ethnicity, social class, physical condition or disability type; therefore, is essential to raise digital and technological use qualification in rural communities in southern Yucatan. As mentioned in State´s Development Plan (2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018) 39 out of the 106 municipalities population (in average) has not finished elementary school (1 st to 6st grade). In literacy terms, Mérida (state capital), presents the lowest percentage, while in southern and eastern municipalities, such as Mayapan, Tahdziu and Chemax, have percentages higher than 27% of the population.
This study findings reveal a pending work agenda for regional post-secondary institutions